Big Skinny

In 2010, Big Skinny CEO Kiril Alexandrov was looking to transcend from retail distribution and print advertising to the world of online marketing to achieve maximum growth. The retail sales pitch was an easy one, as Alexandrov focused on the value of the wallet and the impulsiveness of consumers (Benjamin & Kominers, 2012). Unfortunately, translating this type of sales pitch was much harder to do in the world of cyberspace. Big Skinny centered their online marketing efforts around display Ads, keyword searches, social media and relationships with online distributors and deep discounted sites such as Amazon and Groupon respectively.The expansion caused much hardship, as Big Skinny received negative feedback on the review website Yelp that stemmed from their Groupon experiment. They also faced a glitch in their online promotion that allowed 4,000 people to order free wallets from their online store. Big Skinny needs to refocus their online marketing strategy by getting rid of display A ds, refining keyword searches and severing ties with deep discounted sites. Big Skinny can create value for their product and manage their orders better by being more selective with who distributes their product and by keeping the price steady.A more seasonal approach surrounding keyword searches can create new revenue from those who are looking to make quick and impulsive purchases. Lastly, by being responsible for who distributes their products, Big Skinny can deliver their product in prompt and timely manner, which will resolve the majority of customer complaints against Big Skinny. Problem Statement Despite successful in-person sales campaigns, Big Skinny struggled to find an effective online marketing platform that would grow and connect them to their consumer base.Big Skinny also ran into glitches with their current online marketing campaigns that brought unwanted negative attention and resentment towards the company. Data Analysis When Big Skinny transcended into the world of online marketing, it had to develop a way to attract visitors to the website while attempting to convince these visitors to buy wallets. Since most of their wallets were being sold at trade shows or retail stores that centered on a straight-forward approach regarding impulse and value, the translation of this strategy to the internet proved to be a tall task.Big Skinny looked at various means of advertising such as display ads, algorithmic search, sponsored search, A/B Testing and social media. Display ads offered a two-frame animation; however, the click-through rate of general display ads in 2009 was only . 1% (Bejamin & Kominers, 2012). Algorithmic searches use algorithms that the search engine deems most relevant to the user’s query. The websites that most resemble the query appear the highest on the search engine’s list. Sponsored searches use keywords that the advertisers specify that they want to target.These are mostly sold on a â€Å"per-click† basis; however the company loses money if the clicks aren’t converted into sales. A/B testing is a marketing technique that shows different advertisements to different users to compare the response rates between the two. Lastly, social media utilizes websites such as Facebook and Twitter to try and create an interactive relationship with consumers. Alternatives 1. Big Skinny could eliminate their means of online distribution and paid online marketing, only utilizing social media and their website to conduct advertising and business transactions. 2.Big Skinny could be more selective in their selection of online distribution, while tailoring their paid sponsored searches to generate interest and sales. 3. Big Skinny could scrap their online marketing plans, with the exception of social media, and reallot their advertising money strictly on deep discounted sites like Groupon and Living Social. 4. Big Skinny could focus their efforts on expanding in more brick and mortar retail stores b y target marketing towards different demographics. They could use traditional media such as TV and radio to drive these efforts. Key Decision Criteria 1.Increase customer satisfaction and corporate image 2. Increase sales and market share 3. Improve (or at least maintain) profitability 4. Ease or speed of implantation 5. Be consistent with corporate mission or strategy 6. Within our present resources or capabilities 7. Within acceptable risk parameters 8. Minimize environmental impact 9. Maintain and build employee morale and pride Alternatives Analysis 1. By limiting their online marketing to free social media sites such as Twitter or Facebook, Big Skinny can greatly reduce their marketing costs. With display advertisements only getting clicked through .1% of the time the money is essentially thrown away. Investing in A/B testing requires the hiring of a permanent person and huge overhead. Getting rid of online distributors allows Big Skinny to eliminate the 7-15% commission they p ay to Amazon and eBay while being able to manage their order load. Social Media is more than enough because 71% of social media participants say they are more likely to purchase from a brand they follow online. 91% of local searchers say they use Facebook to find local businesses online (Bennett, 2013). The cons of this are that they are missing out on a lot of potential customers by eliminating Amazon and eBay.While online paid marketing can be expensive, there is still benefit to sponsored searches. Some of the cost per conversions are profitable and by completely eliminating these searches would be throwing away potential opportunities. 2. The pros of Big Skinny being more selective with their online distributors allows for a happy customer base. There have been several negative reviews on the Yelp site regarding slow delivery and non-existent customer service. By eliminating deep discounting sites such as Groupon, Big Skinny can manage their order load and keep customers happy.B ig Skinny would also keep the revenue from the top paid sponsored searches rather than eliminating them all together. The negatives of this are that Big Skinny could miss out on a lot of revenue by not using Groupon or Living Social. They could also miss out on the repeat customers that are generated by these sites as well as missing out on the people who want to try their product without having to pay full price. 3. Instead of eliminating sites like Groupon and Living Social, Big Skinny could embrace the huge influx of customers that it brings.According to the customer satisfaction and analytics company ForeSee, 91% of customers have already or plan to conduct business with the merchant since buying the deal (Bedigian, 2013). This strategy generates a large influx of customers in a short time while attempting to generate residual income by repeat customers. The cons of this are that company’s often lose money during the initial Groupon. The product is discounted by 50% or mo re and then Groupon takes a 50% commission on the sale price, which leaves the seller receiving only 25%of the original selling price of the item (which in some cases is less than the cost of the item). Forbes has found that 1/3rd of businesses have lost money on a Groupon deal and there is no guarantee that the customers ever return to pay full price from the merchant again (Gleeson, 2012). 4. The pros of using a more traditional advertising medium such as TV or radio would bring brand recognition for Big Skinny. Big Skinny has always had success selling in retail stores because they market their products based on value and impulse.By putting the product in more retail stores, there is a greater chance people will put it in their hands and buy on impulse. Instead of targeting just one big audience, Big Skinny should advertise by target market such as Big Skinny Sport or Big Skinny Women. By doing this they could partner with big retail chains to get into more stores and generate mo re revenue the old fashioned way. The average time an American spends watching TV is 5 hours compared to just 1 hour browsing the internet, which leads for greater exposure.The cons of doing this are that TV advertising is much more expensive than online marketing (Nielsen, 1997). Another con is Tivo allows people to record their favorite shows and then fast-forward past the commercials. The last con is that TV advertising seems to be a thing of the past, as the amount spent on TV advertising was only up 4. 5% in 2011 as compared to 21. 7% via online marketing (Gleeson, 2012). Recommendations Based on the data, it is best for Big Skinny to be more selective of their online distribution, while tailoring their paid sponsored searches to generate interest and sales.In regards to online distribution, Big Skinny should keep eBay and Amazon, however, should drop deep-discount sites such as Groupon or Living Social. To offer a Groupon deal, Big Skinny is guaranteed to be taking a loss. To be eligible to offer a Groupon, Big Skinny must discount the price of their wallet by at least 50%. This turns a $20 wallet into a $10 wallet. Groupon takes a commission of 50% on the sale price, which leaves Big Skinny walking away with only $5 for every wallet sold (Bice, 2012). Essentially, they are taking a loss with every wallet they sell on Groupon.The goal of a Groupon is to try and get repeat customers; however, the people that use Groupon are bargain-hunters. They won’t return to Big Skinny, but rather, they will return to Groupon again looking for another bargain deal. By using Groupon, Big Skinny also decreases the value of their brand (Gibbard, 2011). Why would a customer pay full price for a $40 wallet when they just bought it on Groupon for $15 or $20 just a short time ago? In addition to dropping Groupon, Big Skinny needs to manage their online distribution better because of customer satisfaction issues.On the review site Yelp, Big Skinny’s wallets are o nly receiving a rating of 2. 5 out of 5 stars. A lot of the reviews include gripes about not receiving their order for 3-4 weeks or non-existent customer service (most of the negative reviews are from users who bought a Big Skinny wallet on Groupon). If the online distributor doesn’t ship your product in a timely manner, your company risks a tarnished reputation. Whether Big Skinny didn’t have enough stock to fulfill orders or whether Groupon didn’t ship the products in a timely manner, Big Skinny is taking the fall and abuse from customers.When people do research for a product they are going to see Big Skinny’s products with poor ratings. These poor ratings can scare potential customers away. Big Skinny should only use Amazon, eBay and their website to sell their wallets. This allows them to manage their inventory, not get behind on orders and make sure their product gets shipped in a timely manner. Big Skinny has excellent Amazon ratings and should cont inue to grow their product through the sterling reputation of Amazon. They should sell the product for a higher price on their website so that people are encouraged to buy through Amazon.This is a win-win for Big Skinny because if people buy through Amazon then Big Skinny doesn’t have to waste time and effort fulfilling and shipping orders. If they choose to buy direct than Big Skinny receives a larger profit on their wallets. Lastly, Big Skinny needs to tailor their sponsored keyword searches. They need to eliminate the term â€Å"leather wallet. † They don’t manufacture a true leather wallet and the cost per conversion for this keyword is a sky-high $20. 26. Big Skinny should also bid less for the term â€Å"thinnest wallet. † The cost per conversion for â€Å"thinnest wallet† also has a high cost, which is $10.53.After replacing leather wallet and lowering the bid for thinnest wallet, Big Skinny should add keywords centered on holidays. Wallets are popular gifts on occasions such as Father’s Day and Christmas. Big Skinny should add season keywords such as â€Å"Father’s Day Wallet,† â€Å"Wallet for Dad,† â€Å"Best Wallet for Gift† and â€Å"Wallet for Christmas. † This will bring seasonal shoppers into the mix who are looking to spend quickly and impulsively. Action and Implementation Plan CEO Kiril Alexandrov will be responsible for delegating the following tasks.The Director of Marketing will pull any promotions or future plans with deep discounted sites such as Groupon or Living Social. The Director of Marketing in combination with the Director of Product Management will reach out to all of those who left negative reviews on Yelp to satisfy the customer complaints and retract the negative ratings. The Director of Sales will carefully select the online distribution channels which Big Skinny will sell through. Big Skinny will only sell through Amazon, eBay and any online outlets of the retail stores that they are currently featured in.The Director of Sales will also raise the prices of wallets on the Big Skinny Website by 10-15% to create value for the product and promote customers to purchase through the select online distribution. Doing this saves Big Skinny the time it would take to fulfill and pack orders, however, if a customer decides to purchase direct, then Big Skinny recoups the 10-15% it would pay Amazon or eBay to sell and fulfill the order. This new price point will be conveyed in a message from the Director of Sales to Big Skinny’s distribution channel.

Desire Under the Elms Essay

This article discusses several different elements of the play. It talks about things such as the nature of the play, the setting, and even the concerns that were happen around the time that the play was written. The critic opens up by giving a brief synopsis of what’s happening in the outside world during the time that Eugene O’Neil wrote the play. The article opens up stating how O’Neil takes a difference response with this play as if he was demonstrating Greek theatre. Henry is trying to explain that even though the play does not follow any particular play, that it echoes Hippolytus and Medea which both involve incest and infanticide (Henry, 2006). This type of behavior was highly intolerable during this time; this is what made the Desire Under the Elm stick out to readers and reviewers. In the article, the main point that is brought up is the desire between Eben and Abby. From the moment that Abby is known at the house, there is some form of tension between her and Eben. While Eben tries to remain loyal to the memory of his mother he his overcome by Abby, with her beauty, charm, and grace (Henry, 2006). It is hard for Eben to confess his love or true feelings for Abby because it is hard for him to accept Abby’s place in his home and the fact that she will one day own the farm that was robbed from his mother. Eben truly believes that Abby is an intruder, that is trying to seek his inheritance. All the while Abby is the type of person that had learned to fight for what she wants, and she will get it by any means necessary (Henry, 2006). The article also speaks on Abby as a person. Henry feels that Abby would’ve made a great wife for Ephram for as long as he lived, if Eben had not been around (Henry, 2006). Abby was the type of woman that knew how to get what she wanted. In this case, in this story Abby had dreams on owning Ephram’s farm. She was only 25 years old and she wasn’t expecting for Ephram to live too much longer, that way she could have some inheritance. There are several things that I learned while reading this critical analysis. The first thing that caught my attention was the history of time during this period. I had no idea the O’Neil was living in a time where he had lost both his mother and his brother before he wrote the play (Henry, 2006). In my opinion, the play was a minor hit of his own life during this time. He could have very well been compared to Eben. Another important fact that catches my attention about the article is that the conflict between father and son are so strong. In my opinion this proved that Ephram was not a good man at all. Eben’s reason for not liking his father was based on the facts that his mother told him. The thing that confused me was why did Ephram’s other sons Peter and Simon hate him so much? By watching the movie I can see, that Ephram was rough or hard on his sons but hard as they worked they still seemed to be a disappointment to him as well. Ephram’s main goal was to have a son that was strong and that he could be proud of, this was his purpose of having a baby boy with Abby. Last but not least, the article discusses how people can lose focus. The most obvious case of this in the story is Eben because he loses focus of what’s important when he falls in love with Abby. My question is about Ephram. He loses focus when he returns home with Abby. The only thing that he thinks about is not being alone. He never thinks about how his sons will adapt to Abby nor does he even think about does Abby really love him or is she just using him. It is obvious that Ephram loses focus of the ownership of the farm, he just wants somebody to be with in life so that he will not end up alone.

Equal opportunities for all in employment Essay

1. Do you think that legislation is useful in ensuring that there are equal opportunities for all in employment? There has been a gradual reduction in discrimination through the last century, legislation past by the government in numerous acts have acted to reduce discrimination in the work place. The Equal pay Act 1970, The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and the Race Relation Act 1976 are the main legislation that reduce discrimination. The Equal Pay Act 1970 ensured that men and women get the same terms and conditions for working a comparable job. Previous to this there were many employers paying women less for doing the same amount of work as a man. The Sex discrimination Act 1975, made it illegal to discriminate in employment on the grounds of sex and martial status. This act also brought to light direct discrimination; where someone is treated less favourably than a member of the opposite sex; and indirect discrimination; where a particular requirement apparently treats everyone equally but has a disproportionate effect on a particular group; the required must also not be justifiable (Bratton & Jones 1994). The Race Relations Act 1976 made it unlawful for employers to discriminate on grounds of race, colour, nationality and ethnic or national background. This was in an effort to reduce racism especially in the work place. These pieces of legislation are in an attempt to provide ‘equal opportunities’. Employer should only make decisions based upon the person’s ability to do the job. Though the government tries to ensure equal opportunities by giving out legislation that is encouraging, equal opportunities relies on good working practice. This is highlighted in job analysis where a person specification must not be more favourable to men than women. Advertising must not discriminate on grounds of sex or martial status, ‘sales person’ as appose to ‘salesman’. Interviews and selection must not ask discriminating questions such as whether a woman intends to have children. In conclusion legislation goes a long way to helping equal opportunities, and some cases (Grieg V Community Industry (1979), Gubala V Crompton Parkinson Ltd (1979)) have been brought against employers for discrimination. But real equal opportunity relies on the employer’s good practice of this legislation (Pendlebury 1996). 2. Is positive discrimination a worthwhile policy for an organisation and for society in general? Is there an overriding justification for positive discrimination? Positive discrimination is only worthwhile when used to dismiss preconceptions. Ethnic groups do not go into the police force generally for fear of racism and discrimination. UK police have a policy of encouraging recruitment from ethnic groups. This is to help represent society, which is multi-cultural; therefore enforcement officers should also be multi-cultural for an equal representation. Though positive discrimination must not be confused with or lead to preferential treatment on the basis of tokenism e.g. everyone past the recruitment test except for the woman, therefore we re-test or just allow her in anyway, as we need a woman. In politics, the House of Parliament is meant to be a representation of Great Britain’s society this is not the case. The majority of the House of Parliament is middle-aged, white and male. Steps have been made to positively discriminate to attain a more un-biased representation of the population. In this case there is an overriding justification for discrimination to help the young, women, ethnic groups into the House of Parliament. 3. Why is the interview such a popular method of selection, and what are its advantages and disadvantages? The interview is the most popular method of selection because it allows much more detail than any other form. Questions can be posed and the responses gauged as they are given. The advantages of the interview are that it has direct face-to-face communication. A rapport can be built up between candidate an interviewer; giving a relaxed atmosphere and more natural answers. The interview can be used to find out specific details crucial to the job and the candidates ability in this area. The candidate is less likely to exaggerate face-to-face than they might on an application form. An interview generally outlines what the candidate wrote on an application form. It is the best method of getting an accurate prediction of work performance. The disadvantages of a interview is that the candidate can deceive the interviewer in specialist areas that the interviewer knows nothing about e.g. the candidates knowledge of internal computer circuit boards, the interviewer might not know enough information about them to tell if the candidate is really the right person for the job. The interviewer’s perception may be selective, s/he may be racist, and this lack of objectivity may go unnoticed. A rapport with the candidate might cloud the interviewers objective judgement. An interviewer might dismiss a candidate on first impressions or stereotyping and then spend the rest of the interview confirming their decision. Or the halo effect where a smart dressed candidate distorts later judgements. The interviewer can make a logical error just because the candidate has not held down a job for more than six months doesn’t mean they won’t this time. Interviews place more emphasis on the negatives rather than the positives. Inexperienced interviewers might make errors of judgement and bias the results (Chambers 1997). 4. Analyse the problems associated with psychometric testing, and the underlying assumptions on which this selection procedure is based. Psychometric testing has a number of drawbacks: There is not always a direct relationship between the candidate’s performance in the test and their ability in the job. The job situation may be very different from the artificial test scenario. The interpretation of the results is usually complicated requiring training and experience. It is highly subjective, which belies the apparent scientific nature of the approach. Individual psychometric tests have their own drawbacks; an aptitude test for arithmetical ability would need to be constantly revised to ensure that later applicants would not know its content. Personality tests are often misleading as applicants try to guess which result will be viewed most favourably. Intelligence tests do not usually take into account different cultures and attitudes, which affects their chances of scoring well. It can be very hard to test for obscure traits such as maturity and creativity. It is difficult to erase bias from tests. Many tests are completed better by men than women, tests are usually designed by men this influences the make-up of the test. It is hard not to discriminate against race or sex in particular aspects of the testing. The underlying assumption is that all applicants test on fair and equal terms. If an applicant’s mother is ill in hospital this will weigh on the applicants mind and may distract them in the test. The best applicant may be having an off day, while the worse applicant might be on top form. Rewards Management 1. Analyse the connection between motivation and pay using three mainstream motivation theories. Herzberg’s two factor model of motivation claims that money is a ‘hygiene factor’ which means it is a dissatisfier if it is not sufficient, however money is not a potential satisfier or positive motivator. Herzberg said that money’s impact on favourable feelings is short term, while not enough pay produced long term unfavourable feelings. Adams’s Equity theory of motivation argues that satisfaction from pay is related to the employee’s perception. This is the amount of effort they put in for the amount of pay they get compared with the ratio of others. Expectancy Theory states that motivation will be strong if individuals can expect their effort to produce worthwhile rewards. Armstrong & Murlis (1998) say that ‘the greater the value of a set of awards, the higher the probability that receiving each of these rewards depends upon effort, the greater the effort that will be put forth in any given situation.’ For example to get a bonus of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100, they may have to reach certain targets, if they think the effort they have to put in would match the à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½100 they will. Pay is very important to people because they rely on it to satisfy their basic needs. It is also a sign of their worth, it can therefore improve self-esteem and thus motivate them. Pay is the key to attracting people to a new job although other benefits may also be a factor pay is the most crucial. Employees will make comparisons between themselves and other employees, which will relate to equity and fairness. If they feel they’re not being paid enough they will leave, or work to attain a pay-rise. Pay can motivate (Armstrong & Murlis 1998) but to achieve lasting motivation attention has to be paid to other non-financial motivators. 2. When considering their reward systems management and employees will have differing priorities. What might these priorities be and why do they differ? Managers want to increase productivity by motivating their staff to get as much work out of them as possible. Employees on the other hand want as much money and benefits for doing their work as they can get. This produces a common ground on which employers and employee’s can negotiate. Employees want to maximise their rewards for working which affects their standard of living and their lifestyle. The organisation wants value for money from its employees, to attract and retain staff, to gain commitment and improve performance, which affects profitability and cost-effectiveness. Employees are looking after themselves and want rewards for doing as little work as possible. Employees are concerned that for putting a certain amount of effort in they get a justified reward. Management are concerned that the employee put in enough effort to deserve the award. Sale targets are a good example, if the employee meets the managers requirements they get a bonus (Armstrong & Murlis 1998). 3. What do we mean by differentials and relatives, and why are they important? The pay structure must provide appropriate differentials between ranges to reward significant increase in job size by moving a job to a higher grade. This means that there must be a meaningful pay increase with an increase in workload. If there is not sufficient differential between ranges of pay, then some workers will become borderline and frequent re-evaluations will be required. In a chain of command the pay is highest at the top and lowest at the bottom. Before being able to move up the chain, the length of the link must be overcome. Their needs to be at least a 10% pay rise for going from one link of the chain to the next, despite small pay rises as the employee moves up the link. Internal Relatives can be monitored by looking at the differentials that exist between groups of employees. If it is felt that because of changing roles that the pay does not reflect the new job size, investigations can be conducted to rectify the situation. When looking at pay for an employee, comparisons must be made on other organisations (monitoring external relatives). This is the competitive stance it has with other organisations; this might be matching others, more or less. It is important for managers to look at the pay differences in their own staff to see whether they aren’t being treated fairly; not being paid enough for the work they do compared to another employee. If the employee’s feel there is not enough pay rises to accept extra work they will not. If there is not sufficient differentiation between stages of the chain of command they will not be so keen to advance upon it. Also if employees of McDonalds employees learn that Burger King is relatively paying an extra pound per hour more, they will try to defect to Burger King. (Armstrong & Murlis 1998) 4. What changes has the development of HRM brought to management of reward systems? Are these changes beneficial to employer and employee? Armstrong & Murlis (1998) claim that Reward Management philosophy evolved in accord with many aspects of HRM philosophy. This is emphasised by treating people as assets to be invested in, this is HRM philosophy being incorporated by rewards management. By rewarding people; putting money in; this should get greater productivity; getting more out. Demonstrated by gaining employees commitment to the objectives and values of the organisation. Through strategic integration by incorporating HR issues into strategic plans and ensuring that the various aspects of HRM cohere and are mutually supportive. Lastly HRM has enabled employees to fulfil their full potential and to deliver their maximum contribution to the achievement of organisational goals. These changes really benefit both the employee and the employer, the employee gets more out of rewards management, while the employer recognises the employee as an asset. HRM tries to bring the goals of employers and employees closer together, by involving the employee more with the business increasing his loyalty while getting more out for he employer (Armstrong & Murlis 1998). Restructuring of Work 1. Why might the structure or design of work be important for the individual worker and for the organisation? The structure or hierarchy of work may help aid communications from the top level of management down to the lowest worker. An organisation with many layers of hierarchy or along chain of command will have difficulty in communications between top and bottom men. Communications from the top will go through many layers and tend to distort as the message is past on like Chinese whispers. Communications from the bottom will take ages to reach the top if they ever do. This is why a process of delayering has been happening in many UK businesses to reduce the levels of hierarchy to around four. Clearly defined aims and objectives help to ease systems of communication between different parts of the organisation. Rolex want to be perceived as a luxury brand, this is their aim and objective. Knowing this their marketing department is not going to do a cheap and tacky advert e.g. Pot Noodle. A good structure will help to keep all aspects of the organisation working in the same direction, for the organisations goals. To have a good structure is important to eliminate mistakes and therefore not waste time and money. 2. Explain the limits of taylorism as a job design strategy. Fredrick Taylor’s technique of scientific management is based upon the division of labour. This was done by taking a complex job and splitting it into its component parts, then train employees to carry out a single task in the most efficient way. This is in effect a production line with each worker doing a bit more to the product. The drawbacks of job design by task fragmentation are that workers experience extreme repetitiveness. Doing a task with little mental stimulation will result in daydreaming and not paying attention as a result of social interactions and diversions. This can lead to accidents and errors in the task. Stress is related specifically to high-workload, low discretion jobs. Symptoms include nervous tension, withdrawal and low morale; this will tend to affect performance. Motivation will suffer as a result of dissatisfaction with the work and extra efforts will need to be made by the managers. The simple tasks will also build walls between workers and management, as the workers tasks are perceived theirs and under the control of the manager (Mullins 1999)(Marcouse 1999) 3. â€Å"Job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment are simply attempts by managers to control individuals at work†. Discuss. Job rotation involves workers changing jobs from time to time. This could mean moving down a production line or from one department to another. This should reduce boredom and give the employee a wider variety of skills and understanding of the business. An employer will also gain from a more widely trained staff, as it allows for staff being ill and having trained employees who can take over. Although rotation might keep the worker interested, the time spent for the worker to learn new skills in each department would counter balance the gains in productivity. In addition moving workers from one boring job to another equally repetitive is unlikely to motivate them. (Hall, 1997) Job enlargement gives employees a chance to do a number of small-related tasks as appose to just one repetitively. For example they might be able to construct the whole bicycle, not just the handlebars. This is meant to reduce boredom as the employees have a wider variety of tasks to do and encourage satisfaction with a sense of closure. However in contrast it is argued that it reduces efficiency because of a fall in productivity from carrying out a greater number of tasks. Many workers also resent this because they prefer doing a singularly boring repetitive job so they do not need to concentrate as much. Job enlargement works better within a group situation, where each worker has specific jobs and job rotation can take place. (Hall, 1997) Job enrichment is designed to give individuals a greater freedom and feeling of responsibility. It focuses on intrinsic satisfaction; by giving employees authority over planning and execution of a task they should gain a greater sense of achievement upon completing the task. It is a more complex and challenging job that should develop their unused skills and encourage them to be more productive. Job enrichment isn’t without its problems though, workers who feel they are unable to complete the required tasks will not react positively to it feeling they have been forced in to it. Also not all employees will react in the same way feeling they should be paid more for the extra responsibility. (Mullins, 1999)(Hall, 1997) All these techniques of increasing productivity are designed not to cost the organisation any more money. In some ways it is managers just manipulating the workers, by changing their work patterns in a way to increase output. Job enrichment however gives the employee a sense of responsibility, lessening direct managerial supervision. But ultimately these techniques are used by managers to get the workers motivated and as productive as possible. 4. We are said to be living in a post Fordist era. What does this mean and how, do you think this came about? With so much hostility to Taylor’s scientific management, despite its benefits for employers, it had to be dropped. However the principles have evolved into a more acceptable model mainly incorporating job enrichment. The development of mass assembly line work was invented by Henry Ford in 1913 (Fordism); this took many of Taylor’s principles. This has been moved on from in an effort to try and increase motivation and productivity. Littler and Salaman (1984) listed five points of good job design: – 1. Closure – finishing a product or process 2. Assuming responsibility for quality control 3. Job flexibility is enabled by allowing training in different skills 4. Self regulation of the speed of work 5. The job structure allows social interaction and a degree of co-operation among workers. (Bratton & Gold 1994) Since this there have been three broad types: job enrichment, reorganisation of assembly lines and Japanese-style job design. Job enrichment as above is concerned with rotation and enlarging among others. The reorganisation of assembly lines has been associated with increased product differentiation in highly competitive consumer industries and unstable labour relations. This creates more flexible work structures in order to accommodate more rapid product changes. Japanese-style job design has three main elements: flexibility, quality control, and minimum waste. Businesses now tend to use one of these three techniques in the post-fordist era this has come about as an evolution of techniques and trial and error. Scientific Management didn’t work but lessons were learnt from it and are still applied today. The Concept of HRM in Transition 1. Should human resources be dealt with any differently from other resources? Justify your answer by referring to the managers control function. Human resources need to be dealt with differently than other resources; otherwise they’ll just leave the job. To ensure against this Human Resource Planning is carried out, this will include how to motivate staff, how to develop an organisational culture and planning how to support or develop employees e.g. training. Human resources are not like raw materials where they are purchased and used, a constant understanding is needed. The management want to have as flexible workforce as possible; this means training staff so they become multi-skilled. This can allow job rotation and covering other employees in the event of illness (Hall, 1997). 2. Discuss the four key elements of the Storey Model of HRM The four key elements of the Storey model 1992 are: Beliefs & Assumptions, Strategic Aspects, Line Management and Key Levers. The Beliefs & Assumptions of HRM are Unitarist, the differences between PIR and HRM are that HRM tries to instil commitment and trust in the employee looking to go ‘beyond the contract’. Therefore employees should be carefully selected and developed (Bratton & Gold, 1994). The Strategic Aspects are central to HRM, always trying to think of the business and the consumer. HR policies should be integrated into the business strategy – stemming from it and even contributing to it (Storey, 1999). The Line management is concerned with the critical role of managers. This is because HR decisions are crucial to a business and too important to be left to specialists alone (Storey, 1999). As appose to needing specialist key managers HRM allows the general managers as key players in HR issues. The Key Levers according to Storey (1999) are that: managing culture is more important than managing procedures and systems; integrated action on selection, communication, training, reward and development; and restructuring and job redesign to allow devolved responsibility and empowerment. 3. Evaluate the possible experience of working in an HRM environment, as opposed to a Personnel environment. Torrington and Hall state that the nature and degree of difference between personnel management and Human Resource Management as remaining ‘largely matters of opinion rather than fact, and the similarities are much greater than the differences’. Personnel management is ‘workforce-centred’, directed mainly at the employees. Although a management function, personnel are never totally identified with management interests. Personnel managements underlying theme is that workers have a right to proper treatment and to make sure this is the case in manager-worker relationships. HRM is ‘resource centred’; the main aim is to plan, monitor and control rather than mediation as in personnel. HRM is directed mainly at management needs for human resources to be provided and deployed. The underlying theme is that human resource management is much like any other aspect of management and an integral part. This means that it should not be separated, and only handled by specialists (Mullins, 1999) In a Personnel management organisation there can be tension between managers and workers, despite the personnel management intervening. The worker seeks to maximise his wages and rewards, while the employer wants to reduce costs, as they are a drain on profits. In a HRM organisation the employee should feel more involved and therefore be aware of the consequences. HRM also allows a more flexible workforce, which can be deployed more cost effectively than an inflexible one. 4. How, if at all, has the HRM allowed managers to increase organisational efficiency? If managers get better motivate their staff then they will work more efficiently and productivity will rise. Alternatively they might produce a higher quality piece of work. Storey (1999) says that it has become widely accepted that motivation is beneficial to the organisation. If human resource management encourages motivation of employees, if this is successful then efficiency will rise. However a definite link between a satisfied workforce and improved performance has never been proven. There is no reason for a workforce to be satisfied if it isn’t relevant to organisational efficiency or effectiveness other than for human reasons. HRM managers who train their staff get a much more flexible workforce allowing them to be deployed in the best way to reduce costs. HRM managers are much more likely to train their employees as a workforce gaining skills which can be used in a greater cross-section of the business. If last minute orders come-in it is much easier for HRM managers to deal with as they are more flexible than Personnel in contrast who couldn’t make last minute alterations. This makes HRM a much more effective and efficient style of management.

Regulation of the Internet and Democratic Values and Ideals Essay

Regulation of the Internet and Democratic Values and Ideals - Essay Example In the age of internet, it has already become easy for people to keep in touch with each other because online communication has become a potential information resource (McQuail and Siune, 1998, p.76). Information has become a central foundation in the technological revolution (MacKay and O’Sullivan, 1999, p.122). With this, communication has become so easy that even an individual who is in the other part of the world could still converse to the other side of it with relatives or friends via social networking sites such as Skype, Facebook, Twitter, Friendster and many more. It has become so easy to connect with other people nowadays especially in making friends and increasing the number of contacts. In fact, the recent development in communication via internet and fast speed broadband connectivity paves the way for connecting people. Internet therefore has become a social phenomenon affecting culture (Atton, 2004, p.2; Slevin, 2000, p.1). However, while connecting people remain s a significant advantage of the internet, the issue regarding safety remains an alarming priority as one of the potential arguments for the regulation of online activities. Various crimes are already committed within the internet including but not limited to physical or violent harm. Transactions could be faster if they have to be generated online. In this regard, there are bank, credit card and other related transactions already made via online deals or the internet. The purpose is for convenience and safety. However, safety could be such an understatement considering the fact that hackers are flooding over the internet plus there is a remarkable increase in the number of viral programs, malwares and strategies to secure passwords and other relevant confidential information. This is another remarkable reason and a significant argument for the regulation of the internet that at some point may also potentially concern with protecting the identity of an individual and disclosure of h ighly sensitive and valuable information. However, this only proves that censorship is essential in capitalist democracies (Petley, 2009, p.1). In the advent of terroristic attacks and their dangerous output on the public, the UK and US implemented anti-terroristic campaigns and even regulation over the use of the internet and control any activities in the virtual world. All the intentions in these related activities are in line with providing the safety which the public deserves to experience. However, behind this concern, there are other forms of issues that need also to be considered. This generally includes the consideration of democratic values and ideal

Shintoism in Japan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Shintoism in Japan - Essay Example This indigenous religion of Japan is an unstructured mixture of a several beliefs and practices such as the worship of nature, future foretelling, fertility sects and shamanism. In its most fundamental form, Shinto is the religious structure of Japanese nationalism. According to Shinto tradition, the Japanese people and their country were divinely created, their emperors descendants of the Sun Goddess. Commonly, Japanese who are affiliated with Confucianism or the Buddhist religion are simultaneously affiliated with the Shinto sect. The two revered books of Shintoism are the Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan) and the Kojiki (Chronicles of Ancient Events). The Kojiki teaches that in the beginning were the two kami (deities), Izanagi (male-who-invites) and Izanami (female who-invites). Following the creation of Japan they produced many other kami. According to this mythological legend, Izanami passed away after giving birth to the kami of fire. Izanagi, in an attempt to find her, voyaged to Hell where he found her decomposed body infested by maggots. Horrified, he then went back to Japan in revulsion and purified himself by entering a body of water. The Sun Goddess, the Great Kami Amaterasu emerged when he washed out his left eye and Tsukiyom the Moon Kami materialized when he washed out his right eye. Following many years of war between the people of Japan, the Sun Goddess made her grandson, Ninigi, the first emperor of Japan. The Shinto religion is the only religion of the world that is represented by a female Deity. Japanese legend contends that the first emperor appeared during the seventh century B.C. but modern researchers put the actual beginnings of Japanese emperorship at about 200 A. D.

Characteristics of a Future Leader Research Paper

Characteristics of a Future Leader - Research Paper Example The managers, who will lead business enterprises in the future will, therefore, have to possess the required qualities of leadership for the survival of the business. The second sector shows the methodology used in the research work then the challenges that leaders face nowadays with the inclusion of examples are shown. There is also information on how dynamic planning blueprints look like and the new areas that leaders should focus on. Moreover, the note shows the lessons that past leadership behaviors have taught the business world. Furthermore, the research shows the leadership that the current and future generations will have. Finally, the note has a conclusion, which summarizes the research work. Introduction Currently the business issues around the globe have taken a new trend, and when compared to the past, a significant difference is notable. For instance, the way the business used to operate in the past is remarkably different from the way they are operated today. These chan ges in the world of business have occurred because many entrepreneurs are venturing into business activities thereby the competition in the markets has grown too stiff (Anderson, 2006). Moreover, competition has further, been intensified because most businesses embrace technology, which helps them to perfect their services, produce their products at a faster and cheap way and be able to make sales significantly. Technology has, therefore, intensified the competition (Kontes, 2011). Furthermore, the stiff competition is because customers nowadays are extremely keen on the quality than on quantity hence businesses produce products of high quality to satisfy the customer need. Since the production is high, the businesses make different selling strategies thereby intensifying competition. The current generation, therefore, has innovated new trends, which will help in sustaining the businesses in the market. These trends are the use of forensic accounting in the departments of businesses , fusing of business and technology into one system among others (Nahavandi, 2012). From this, it is evident that, in the future, the competition will elevate hence the business leaders of the future ought to possess the required qualities that will help sustain the business, as the competition in the market gets stiffer. Methodology Data Sources The sources of the research work were from the internet books. Other information was collected various business managers through interviewing. Results and Discussion New and Distinctive Challenges New Leaders face New leaders face various challenges in businesses because they have the skills but have no experience of how skills are applied. The first challenge faced by new leaders is that people will not want their leadership (Williams, 2005). Since the new leader will try to make their own way of leading the business, the new leader might face opposition because the most workers are used to the old trends (former leader’s rules). Th e workers will, therefore, feel that the idea of the new leader will fail because the business has never tried using his or her idea.

Ankle strain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ankle strain - Essay Example Instability to the joint occurs whenever there is a fracture of any of the bones of the joint or when there is sprain. Sprain means damage to the ligament. It can be just stretching of the ligament or tearing or rupture of the ligament. Ankle sprains are the most common injuries to the ankle. In fact, they account for 85% of the injuries to the ankle (1). Most of the times the sprains are inversion sprains where the lateral ligaments are damaged.  Ã‚  This is because of the bony and soft tissue anatomy of the ankle and the fact that the lateral malleolus extends further inferiorly than the medial malleolus (2). Other types include syndesmotic sprains and eversion sprains. It is important to diagnose and treat ankle sprains appropriately to prevent symptoms of chronic instability like loss of motion, strength and proprioception (1). Sprains of the ankle account for 38-45% of all injuries in sports (1). It is more common in those who are less active and in the elderly (1). No sex predominance has been noted (1). In about 40% of those who have suffered ankle sprains, chronic instability is a sequel (1). 19 year old James was brought to the emergency department on a Saturday morning at 4 am following injury to the right ankle as he tumbled over the steps while he was returning from a party. He looked intoxicated. On admission to the casualty, he was found to be in intense pain. Examination of the right ankle revealed moderate swelling at the joint with no external bruises and decreased movements at the joint. Pain was mainly localized to the lateral side. He could bear weight on that joint but with pain. Palpation ruled out the possibility of any fractures. There was no evidence of neurovascular compromise either. Past medical history was unremarkable. A diagnosis of grade-II ankle lateral ligament sprain was made in this patient. Ice with the help of ice bag was applied locally. The affected

Cusstom of The Country by Edith Wharton Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cusstom of The Country by Edith Wharton - Essay Example The force and power of Wharton's words is felt throughout the book. In the last chapter, Paul Marvell, home for Easter, finds himself completely alone in the huge 'museum-like' hotel that is to be his home. The descriptions of the rooms with their empty splendor and that of the library with its untouched volumes, is gripping. The reader cannot miss the empathy that Paul feels with Vandyke's Grey Boy with his face "infinitely noble and charming, and yet (in spite of the dog) so sad and lonely that he too might have come home that very day to a strange house in which none of his old things could be found" (Chapter 46). With a few well chosen adjectives and phrases - "the white fur rugs and brocade chairs seemed maliciously on the watch for smears and ink-spots" (Chapter 46), "none of the new servants--they were always new" (Chapter 46), "massive unused inkstands and immense immaculate blotters; not a single volume had slipped its golden prison" (Chapter 46), Wharton has made the very l oneliness the boy feels to emanate from the book and grip the reader. In the scene where the Spragg family gathers for breakfast, Wharton describes the settings superbly.

Case studies 1 & 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Case studies 1 & 2 - Essay Example However the company is faced with the ethical issue of being environment conscious and pro-green operations while having to dump the sewer waste in the Chavon River. This poses as a major issue for the company. Legally there exist no laws that the company would be breaking if it decides to continue on the suggestion provided by Teltec and dump its sewer waste in the Chavon River. However the increasing interest in environment protection including protecting Earth's water resources can lead to a law suit in the future by the Dominican Republic or the community living near the river against the company for dumping its waste in the Chavon River. Moreover consumer action groups can take action against the company for not upholding its social corporate responsibility by polluting its regions of operation in Dominican with the dumping of sewer waste in the Chavon River. In Economic terms the company would be better off dumping its waste in the river as the company would not have to deal with the extensive costs of setting up a treatment plant, and treating the waste before it gets dumped into the river. In the short term this is going to be economically feasible and profitable for the company. However with the passage of time the amount of pollution being driven into the river is going to increase while increasing the pollution levels and concentration as well. At this position it would not be economically suitable or viable for the company to continue dumping untreated sewage into the river as counter lawsuits and legal action can raise fines for the company that would have to be met and alternatives to dumping would have to be developed at additional costs. From the ethical perspective the issue that the Clean Power Company would be facing pertains to the ethical dilemma of not acting upon ones own vision and strategy for business. The company manufactures energy efficient products with the vision of increasing awareness amongst the consumers for environment sustainability while still earning profits form the sale of the energy regulators. However with the practice of dumping the sewerage and the waste directly into the river the company would be not acting on its own beliefs leading to tarnished image for the company. The company is also philanthropic in the manner it wants to develop the local region of operations in the Dominican Republic by building infrastructure to provide support to the local community while establishing programs for their education and development. However if the company takes to dumping sewerage and waste directly into the river, it would create a contradiction of ideology as the action would lead to the pollut ing of the regional environment that goes against the philanthropic viewpoint and perspective of the company. Question B: Stakeholder Management - Write a minimum of 2 pages in APA format addressing the questions below regarding the following stakeholders: the

Employee Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Employee Development - Essay Example It is the role of a particular organization to come up with a strategy or plan to develop the abilities of their employees, to increase their productivity or suitability with regard to advanced technology, management skills, marketing strategies, financial management, project management and business environmental management among other sectors. This work would focus on the main methods applied to identify employee development needs in the current market. Employees’ assessments There are several ways to ascertain employee development needs. Employee regular assessment is majorly applied in the management and technology sectors or departments. The employer can organize for internal or external assessment. Internal assessment implies the departmental heads having a test session to determine whether the employees are conversant with a certain technology or skills. Assessment plan should be established to ensure all employees undergo the system (Noe, 2009). The plan should also ens ure that the organization’s operations are not compromised by the process, in other words, the assessments should be done in an organized shift module to enable other employees continue with their duties while others are being assessed. It is important to alert all employees in a certain department on their assessment date so that they can make adequate preparations with regard to the assessment details. This can be done through internal memos or departmental heads can be used to pass such information. Internal assessment can take many forms depending on the nature of the organization. In technological arena, a specific number of employees will be required to complete some practical connections in the technology laboratories. During the process, safety measures should be observed to limit any chances of accidents. Employees should wear special protective clothing like boots, goggles and helmets among others. Top departmental teams or supervisors would monitor the process to a scertain areas the t need reinforcement. All areas of weaknesses will be noted so that a relevant training session can be organized later. However, one would suggest that the top departmental team or supervisors ought to have been equipped with that particular technology or skill because it will no sense if they are as green as other employees. Currently there are different firms that offer special trainings to department heads or employees depending on the arrangement with the top organizational management team. Organizations dealing with humanity issues like counseling and social and psychological therapy among others can use fellow workers or external volunteers to practice their new skills. I would mention that this should be done in a very critical manner due to the fact that the skills tested might be new, meaning it had never been used before, this might have some negative implications for the volunteers, secondly, volunteers may take legal actions should any of their rights be violated in any of the sessions. It is important to maintain a friendly work environment while ascertaining the development needs within the organization. First it is important to let the employees know the aim of the exercise. The assessment is not any kind of punishment but a way of increasing the productivity or suitability of employees. Secondly, Employers should ensure that all the rights of

Value added Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Value added - Case Study Example There are various ways that Nike adds value to its products. One of them is through the development of their products using high level of creativity thus making them unique from their competitors. They put the quality of their products into consideration while at the same time ensuring that they consider the preferences and the needs of the customers. As such, they are always all ears listening to the feedback of their consumers and ensuring that they put into consideration the criticisms given to them. They also add value to their products through advertisements to create awareness to as many individuals around the globe as possible. They also conduct celebrity endorsements to their products to ensure that as many individuals as possible associate with their products. Nike also conducts the value addition of their products through improvement and development of new product or series. One example is the KD series which has developed from KD I to KD III series. Each of the series has its own unique design and price. Nike also adds value to their products by involvement in community affairs including events and also fundraisers (Davis, 2010). This enables individuals to see the social responsibility part of the company thus creating a good reputation for the

International Product Life Cycle Essay Example for Free

International Product Life Cycle Essay The international product life cycle (IPLC) theory, developed and verified by economists to explain trade in a context of comparative advantage, describes the diffusion process of an innovation across national boundaries. The life cycle begins when a developed country, having a new product to satisfy consumer needs, wants to exploit its technological breakthrough by selling abroad. Other advanced nations soon start up their own production facilities, and before long LDCs do the same Efficiency/comparative advantage shifts from developed countries to developing nations. Finally, advanced nations, no longer cost-effective, import products from their former customers. The moral of this process could be that an advanced nation becomes a victim of its own creation. IPLC theory has the potential to be a valuable framework for marketing planning on a multinational basis. In this section the IPLC is examined from the marketing perspective, and marketing implications for both innovators and initiators are discussed below. Stages and Characteristics There are five distinct stages (Stage 0 through Stage 4) in the IPLC. Table below shows the major characteristics of the IPLC stages, with the United States as the developer of the innovation in question. Exhibit shows three life-cycle curves for the same innovation: one for the initiating country (i. . , the United States in this instance), one for other advanced nations, and one for LDCs. For each curve, net export results when the curve is above the horizontal line; if under the horizontal line, net import results for that particular country. As the innovation moves through time, directions of all three curves change. Time is relative, because the time needed for a cycle to be completed varies from one kind of product to another.

Maternal Nutrition During Pregnancy

Maternal Nutrition During Pregnancy Reflection on maternal nutrition during pregnancy and advice given to a client The aim of this assignment is to reflect on my learning experience and the time spent with a midwife in an antenatal clinic advising pregnant women on a nutritional diet for a healthy pregnancy. Also, the reflection helped me recognise a negative aspect of my experience, as well as focus on the positive part of the event. For this essay I will use Gibbs’ (1988) type of reflective cycle. The model contains six phases necessary to complete one cycle of reflection associated with description of an event; my feelings and deep thoughts, evaluation and analysis of the case, examination of the whole situation and summary of my experience. My second clinical placement was in an antenatal clinic in a hospital. On the day I worked with a registered midwife providing nutritional advice to pregnant women. According to the Nursing and Midwifery Council (2015), in order to protect the chosen woman and her partner’s anonymity, I will refer to them utilising the pseudonyms Anne and Tom. Anne arrived on time for her appointment with the midwife. She was a twenty two year old lady, primigravida, nine weeks plus one day pregnant. Also, Anne had a body mass index (BMI) of 23, and her pregnancy was unplanned, but she was excited to discuss her nutritional needs with us. After welcoming Anne and introducing ourselves, I obtained a verbal consent from the client to participate and discuss nutritional issues during her pregnancy. The midwife knew me well as we had worked together almost a week. I had some experience managing and recording maternal observation, but she was aware that I had never presented nutritional information directly to a woman. At first, the midwife advised me to get familiar with the hospital policy and procedural guidance about food and nutrition during pregnancy. A day before Anne’s appointment, the midwife and I discussed the subject of high nutritional requirements and the appropriate diet to be maintained throughout the pregnancy. I began my interview with Anne by communicating in a friendly and professional manner in order to establish a positive attitude to her future maternity care. After that Anne was asked some general questions in relation to her food preferences and allergies. At all times I was closely supported and supervised by the midwife, and as the discussion progressed I felt more confident in providing Anne with the required details for a healthy diet. I explained that a healthy eating is essential throughout pregnancy and a variety of different types of food is recommended to help the mothers stay fit and well. In addition, I indicated that plenty of fruits and vegetables of different colours will provide the body with essential vitamins, minerals and fibre, which will help the digestive system and prevent constipation. Anne remarked that she felt nausea in the mornings and that she could only tolerate certain foods. She added that meals did not taste the same as before. Also, she indicated tha t her stomach got upset and her appetite considerably diminished following the smell of certain foods. Next, the midwife got involved in the conversation and reassured Anne that morning sickness in the early days was completely normal, but as long as it was not severe would resolve by 16 to 20 weeks of pregnancy. Moreover, the midwife suggested that getting up slowly from bed in the morning may reduce the symptoms. Also, Anne was advised to drink plenty of clear fluids and to eat something dry, such as a toast or crackers for breakfast. I added that eating frequently small snacks and avoiding heavy meals can improve food intake significantly. Furthermore, Anne was encouraged to drink approximately two litres of water a day. It was essential for her body system to work perfectly and to prevent dehydration. On the other hand, soft fizzy drinks contain high amount of carbohydrates and could lead to overweight. Particular attention was paid to meals containing substantial amounts of sugar, salt and fat. The National Health Service (NHS) (2009) states that an increased amount of saturated fat can lead to overweight and heart disease. Furthermore, the midwife went through all the information about protein meals, dairy food and carbohydrates. In addition, Anne was informed about some foods and drinks which were unsafe in pregnancy, as they may harm or cause severe malformation of the fetus. For example, daily consumption of caffeine needs to be limited to 200mg. There are concerns that high amounts of it can cause miscarriage or delivery of an infant with low birth weight. Alcohol intake is completely forbidden, due to the fact that it can affect the foetus’s development. Risk of Salmonela virus can be avoided by cooking all meat and eggs thoroughly. Another harmful bacteria to pregnant women is Listeriosis, found in soft cheeses, unpasteurised milk, shellfish and undercooked meat (NHS, 2009). However, listeria can be destroyed by cooking all type of meat, eggs and ready meals thoroughly (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [NICE], 2014). I briefly informed Anne about some of the important vitamins and minerals she needed throughout pregnancy. For instance, folic acid, vitamin D, iron, vitamin C and calcium. For example, the daily recommended dose of folic acid in the first trimester of pregnancy is 400mcg (NICE, 2014). The midwife added that frequent intake of folic acid can diminish the risk of having an infant with health issues such as spina bifida. Furthermore, a nutrition brochure was offered to Anne and she was advised to read it. Finally, Anne was encouraged to take daily supplements due to the high level of vitamins and minerals required in pregnancy. Anne appreciated the nutrition-related details, but at the same time she looked overwhelmed with information. Initially, I was somewhat anxious and hesitant to speak in front of a client and to provide Anne with evidence based information on nutrition in pregnancy. However, as the client became comfortable and appeared willing to understand the importance of healthy eating while pregnant, I felt confident communicating with her. Moreover, it was essential that I was supported by my mentor and encouraged to move outside of my comfort zone. The midwife and I felt united throughout our preparation for the interview with the client and we built strong cooperative skills. Sloper (2004) identified that cooperative working is beneficial for the clients, as it increases their satisfaction of care provided and builds trust in staff members. Nevertheless, I felt that Anne was overloaded with information. It might have been more helpful to present a smaller amount of educational materials over several meetings, rather than the bulk of it in one single session. However, Anne was pleased with the information presented, as we tried to focus on her individual needs. Some studies show that an antenatal education increases women’s knowledge and helps them choose a variety of healthy meals during the pregnancy (Feilitzen, Radestad, Hildinsson Hà ¤ggstrà ¶m-Nordin, 2009). However, one of the main problems was that great amount of information was given in a short time. Lavender, Moffat and Rixon (2000), reported that some nutrition information may be given to women in their preconception consultation with a general practitioner. On a few occasions use of medical jargon was observed. England and Morgan (2012) assert that use of medical language in the health sector can create misinterpretation and confusion in clients and this may have a negative effect on their care. Both my mentor and I had prepared well for the session, applying evidence-based information. We had planned the discussion and kept the client engaged with the presentation material. Furthermore, I was guided by my mentor to find relevant sources of dietary information and present them to Anne in a simple way. After the interview I felt more comfortable speaking in front of a client and I realised that it is completely normal to feel nervous. On a few occasions, my mentor used sensitive humour to decrease the level of stress and to stimulate discussion. Moreover, developing a good relationship with my mentor helped me to expand my understanding of what I need to achieve through my clinical placement. Also, I had opportunity to combine my theoretical knowledge with practical experience and reflect on my clinical involvement. It was vital understanding Anne, and I set aside my judgement in order to recognise her current condition of nausea and vomiting. Valuing Anne as an individual and understanding her current condition will boost her belief in health professionals. Studies show that moderate nausea and vomiting during pregnancy do not need medical treatment (Tiran, 2014). Nevertheless, women suffering from this must not be dismissed, but monitored and supported by health care professionals. Specifically, a knowledgeable midwife can advise the women on the use of complementary therapies. The Royal College of Midwives (2014) state that all midwives must have basic knowledge of the advantages and dangers of complementary therapies. On the other hand, if the midwife has little or no understanding of natural remedies, it can lead the clients to seek advice from unreliable sources, such as the internet. Therefore, it may be equally risky for these women, as information provided via internet can sometimes be unsafe or inaccurate. The women must be mentally supported by midwives, as hyperemesis can lead to serious conditions and women isolation (Dean, 2014). Effective communication between a client and a medical practitioner, as well as good nutritional planning, can significantly decrease the symptoms of hyperemesis. Midwives often advise pregnant women to take multivitamin supplements. The best option is to provide vitamins and minerals through a varied diet, such as consuming plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables (NICE, 2014), as this will reduce the need for purchasing expensive supplements. On the contrary, use of over the counter vitamins by pregnant women could falsely raise the sense of security (Coutts, 2000). Moreover, synthetic supplements are often not distinguished by the human body and are excreted in urine or stored up as fat (Nolan, 1998). Additionally, pregnant women should be extra cautious with supplements containing vitamin A, as high levels could be detrimental for the fetus (Blincoe, 2008). The most significant challenge for me in a clinical setting was the ability to listen effectively to my mentor in order to support and advise a healthy pregnant women about the right nutritional choices. Furthermore, it was important to educate our clients about a balanced diet in order to maximize the possibility for growth of a healthy infant. Women with sensible eating habits and normal BMI will provide the fetus with the perfect environment (Seaman, 1997). Alternatively, poor maternal nutrition could affect the growth and development of the normal fetus. Reflecting on that day and analysing the meeting with Anne helped me understand how I can improve presentation of information in the future. I have reviewed the session with my mentor and realise that I can facilitate discussion, rather than just provide information. My mentor openly shared her practical experience with me and this made me realise that I can use posters to visualise the dietary information. For example, next time I can play a short video related to the benefits of healthy eating to prompt further debate. Also, I need to increase my basic nutritional knowledge in order to support women better in their dietary needs. Overall, the involvement in a clinical placement helped me become logical and creative in my future career. Moreover, various information presentation strategies were discussed with my mentor to help me improve my service user presentation in a clinical setting. The benefits of learning by doing increased my understanding of establishing a nutritious diet in pregnant women in order to deliver a healthy infant. From others’ experience and my own mistakes I learnt how to improve in the future.

Boundary Issues in Therapy: Case Study

Boundary Issues in Therapy: Case Study Critically analyse the actions of the therapist from the perspective of the BACP and BABCP codes of practice and from the perspective of boundary issues. The initial assessment of S revealed the presence of depressive symptoms, alcohol and substance use and poor coping skills, characterised by a chaotic household routine and difficulties managing her two children. Although limited information is available regarding the development of S’s current problems, it would appear that predisposing factors may include a history of physical abuse in her own family and pre-existing â€Å"low mood and irritability†. During the assessment, S described a vicious cycle of depressive feelings, negative automatic thoughts and avoidance behaviours, which appear to have maintained and exacerbated her current state. In addition to the disordered domestic situation previously mentioned, S depicted her relationship with her two young children as being something of a struggle, as she found their fighting with each other problematic and she stated that she â€Å"sometimes loses control† and slaps them â€Å"hard on their legs and handsâ € . Furthermore, S stated that she leaves her 11 year old child daughter to look after her 5 year old daughter. Whilst professing her wish for help, S also acknowledged her fear of losing her children. The counsellor articulated their wish to help S with her depression. In doing so, the counsellor is complying with fundamental principles of both BABCP and BACP guidelines, in terms of â€Å"aiming to resolve problems and promote well-being† (BABCP, 2007) and adhering to the â€Å"beneficence† principle (BACP, 2007). However, the counsellor did not, at this stage, expand upon any possible interventions which may be employed for S’s depression, nor did they explicate a plan to manage S’s alcohol and substance use. At this stage of therapy, it would be useful to begin the process of establishing a therapeutic alliance (Derisley and Reynolds, 2000), in terms of introducing mutually agreed goals and a shared formulation (Kirk, 1989). Such an alliance has been demonstrated to be positively associated with treatment participation and outcomes amongst alcoholics (Connors, DiClemente et al., 1997). Furthermore, this is congruent with the BACP principle of â€Å"a utonomy†, i.e. â€Å"the importance of the client’s commitment to participating in counseling or psychotherapy† and with the BABCP’s guideline of discussing and agreeing the aims and goals of interventions from the outset of therapy. The quality of empathy, an attribute described in BACP guidelines as one which counsellors and therapists should â€Å"aspire to† is not manifestly portrayed in the case study. An empathic therapist style has been associated with low levels of client resistance and with greater long-term change amongst individuals with addictive behaviours (Miller, Sovereign and Krege, 1989 cited in Miller and Rollnick, 1991). Accurate empathy has also been described as facilitating further disclosure of feelings and cognitions and thus, therapeutic collaboration (Marshall, 1996). Confidentiality within a therapeutic relationship is acknowledged as a crucial and implicit feature within BACP codes of practice. This is reflected in the principle of â€Å"fidelity†, i.e. â€Å"honouring the trust placed in a practitioner †¦ confidentiality is an obligation †¦.. any disclosure is restricted to furthering the purposes for which it was disclosed† (BACP, 2007). The BABCP also lists confidentiality within its guidelines for good practice, but is slightly less robust in its communication of this, stating that â€Å"information acquired by a worker is confidential within their understanding of the best interest of the service user and the law of the land† (BABCP, 2007). The counsellor working with S made the decision to break confidentiality due to their concerns about the welfare of S’s children and informs S that she will be requesting a social services assessment of the home situation. In view of S’s previous expression of her fear of losing her children, this information is highly likely to reinforce her anxieties and potentially risks alienating her from the therapeutic alliance and disengaging from any intervention. However, the clear dilemma facing the counsellor was acting upon the perceived risk to S’s children, whilst maintaining confidentiality and trust. Both BACP and BABCP codes of practice affirm that confidentiality must be within legal constraints. When elucidating the principle of â€Å"justice†, the BACP refers to â€Å"remaining alert to potential conflicts between legal and ethical obligations† and further to â€Å"be aware of and understand legal requirements and be legally accountable†. With regard to legal aspects of S’s case, the children’s act of 2004 continues to allow smacking as long as it does not cause visible marks. It is not clear whether S’s smacking of her daughters constitutes illegal activity, however of more concern is her admission that she â€Å"loses control† when slapping them. Also of concern is the information that S allows her 11 year old daughter to care for her 5 year old when she herself feels unable to cope. Whilst S does not actually leave the children alone in the house and therefore is not breaking the law, the emotional impact upon her children would be a potential issue requiring attention. Returning to the actions of the counsellor in this circumstance, it would be highly beneficial to obtain more information about the nature of S’s relationship with her daughters, including the frequency of her smacking them and a clearer impression of their routine, in order to establish the possibility of neglect. The BABCP code of practice states that the therapist should â€Å"minimize possible harm and maximize benefits whilst balancing these against any possible harmful effects to others† (BABCP, 2007) and this is echoed by the BACP, which draws attention to â€Å"situations in which clients pose a risk of causing serious harm to themselves or others†¦ the therapist should be alert to the possibility of conflicting responsibilities between those of their client, others and society† (BACP, 2007). Whilst the decision faced by the counsellor was a difficult one, a possible course of action would have been to declare the potential need to break confidentiality from the outset. Good practice guidelines typically incorporate an initial statement which refers to disclosures remaining confidential unless there is a risk of harm to the self or others (Jenkins, 1997; Bond, 2000) and apprising S of this possibility from the outset may have attenuated, to some extent, the impact o f learning that a social services assessment would be requested. One alternative course of action for the counsellor in this situation would have been to postpone a social services assessment until S had had an opportunity to implement the contract of behaviour regarding her children and the counsellor had sought supervision. There did not appear to be any urgency in S’s home situation, therefore it would seem reasonable to seek supervision prior to taking any immediate action. Both BACP and BABCP codes strongly dictate seeking supervision if â€Å"faced with a situation outside their competence† (BABCP, 2007) and paying â€Å"careful consideration to the limitations of their training and experience† (BACP, 2007). In terms of informing the GP of S’s overall problem issues, but keeping the substance and alcohol abuse confidential, this would appear to be consistent with guidelines of keeping communication between colleagues â€Å"purposeful† (BACP, 2007) and â€Å"relevant† (BABCP, 2007). The counsellor mentions working on strategies to reduce S’s behaviours around substance and alcohol abuse and, as previously mentioned, further clarification of this intervention would have been helpful. Cognitive therapy for substance abuse emphasises identifying and testing thoughts and images about using drugs, modifying beliefs that increase the risk of drug use, coping with drug cravings and providing relapse prevention (Beck et al., 1983; Marlett and Gordon, 1989). Illustrating this process with S may have ameliorated the formation of a working alliance, as well as providing her with greater information about the intervention process, thus increasing her â€Å"self-determinat ion† and â€Å"autonomy† (BACP, 2007). Furthermore, as S appeared to be at the â€Å"contemplation† stage of motivation to change (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1982, cited in Miller and Rollnick, 1991), an informative approach may have consolidated this state and enabled S to further move around the â€Å"wheel of change† into a state of determination or action. With regard to boundary issues in the case study, a clear example of how this may be problematic in the counsellor’s relationship with S is in the area of a dual relationship (Schapp et al., 1996). That is, the emergence of conflicting responsibilities relating to S being the client but her children’s welfare being a clear cause for concern contributed to a potentially disruptive, ambiguous boundary. In this case, the ethical dilemma was apparent and although the codes of practice referred to provide some guidance and principles for managing such difficulties, it has been noted that guidelines and standards inform rather than determine our ethical decisions (Gillon, 1986). As such, in dealing with a client with sole parental responsibility, this is the nature of the issues confronted by a counsellor. References Beck, A.T., Wright, F.D., Newman, C.F. and Liese, B.S., 1983. Cognitive Therapy of Substance Abuse. The Guildford Press. Bond, T., 2000. Standards and Ethics for Counselling in Action. London: Sage. British Association of Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 2007. Guidelines for Good Practice of Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy.  Available from: www.babcp.co.uk  [cited: 30 April, 2008] British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 2007. Ethical Framework for Good Practice in Counselling and Psychotherapy.  Available from: http://www.counselling.co.uk  [cited: 30 April, 2008] Children’s Act, 2004. Chapter 31. London: HMSO. Connors, G.J., Carroll, K.M., DiClemente, C.C., Longabaugh, R. and Donovan, D.M., 1997. The therapeutic alliance and its relationship to alcohol treatment participation and outcome. Journal of Counselling and Clinical Psychology, 65 (4), pp. 582-598. Derisley, J. and Reynolds, S., 2000. The transtheoretical stages of change as a predictor of premature termination, attendance and alliance in psychotherapy. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39, pp. 371-382. Gillon, R., 1986. Philosophical Medical Ethics. New York: Wiley. Jenkins, P., 1997. Counselling, Psychotherapy and the Law. London: Sage. Kirk, J., 1989. Cognitive Behavioural Assessment. In, Hawton, K., Salkovskis, P., Kirk, J. and Clark, D.M. (Eds), 1989, Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Psychiatric Problems: A Practical Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Marlett, G.A. and Gordon, J.R. (Eds), 1989. Relapse Prevention: Maintenance Strategies in the Treatment of Addictive Behaviours. New York: Guildford. Marshall, S., 1996. The Characteristics of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy. In, Marshall, S. and Turnbull, J., 1996. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy: An Introduction to Theory and Practice. Balliere Tindall. Miller, W.R. and Rollnick, S., 1991. Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People to Change Addictive Behaviour. New York: Guildford. Miller, W.R., Sovereign, R.G. and Krege, B., 1989. The Check-up: A Model for Early Interventions in Addictive Behaviours, cited in, Miller, W.R. and Rollnick, S. (Eds.), 1991, Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People to Change Addictive Behaviour. New York: Guildford. Prochaska, J.O. and DiClemente, C.C., 1982. Transtheoretical therapy: toward a more integrative model of change, cited in Miller, W.R. and Rollnick, S., 1991. Motivational Interviewing: Preparing People to Change Addictive Behaviour. New York: Guildford.

Denmark Vesey Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Denmark Vesey was an African-American leader of an attempted slave insurrection in 1822. After many years as a slave, he won $1,500 in a lottery. Vesey used this money to purchase his freedom. He used his intelligence, energy, and luck to acquire considerable wealth and influence in South Carolina. All of these factors helped lead to the largest attempted slave revolt in American history. David Robertson’s book Denmark Vesey outlines his life as a slave, to his freedom, to his execution, and the consequences of the aftermath.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  South Carolina was one of the only states in which the black slaves and abolitionists outnumbered their oppressors. Denmark Vesey’s slave revolt consisted of over nine-thousand armed slaves, free blacks, and abolitionists, that would have absolutely devastated society in South Carolina for slave owners, and could have quite possibly been a major step towards the abolishment of slavery in the United states. Robertson succeeded in describing the harsh conditions of slaves in pre-civil war Charleston, South Carolina. This book also helped me to understand the distinctions between the different groups. These groups including the black slaves, free blacks, extreme abolitionists, and the pro-slavery communities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  David Robertson’s Denmark Vesey is sub-titled ‘The Buried History of America’s Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It.’ This title is extremely appropriate because of the lack of available information regarding the Denmark Vesey rebellion. No one knows the details of the former-slave’s life such as his background, birthplace [â€Å"It is not confirmable whether Vesey was born in Africa or the West Indies.†], place of execution, or physical appearance. Charlestonian officials considered all facts and records of the plans of the revolt to be too dangerous to keep, with the fear of another slave being negatively influenced by them. Nearly all copies of the record of the event, an official report of his trial, and other information were confiscated and burned. The Denmark Vesey revolt is nearly forgotten because of this. Considering the resources that were available to Robertson, Denmark Vesey was well researched, and f actual, without his own opinion showing through too much. For these thoughts he added in his own chapter â€Å"A Personal Conclusion.†... ...ible, even though the book is relatively short. Denmark Vesey gives a good foundation of information on the subject, but is lacking in certain areas.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In spite of its deterioration, the aftermath of the revolt had extensive consequences. Robertson particularized them with references to John Calhoun fortifying South Carolina before the civil war occurred. It also left a scare in the people’s minds, and was another small step towards the abolishment of slavery. Robertson analyzed the aftermath in a variety of aspects, including the effects on the public, and the government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Denmark Vesey by David Robertson, is an important contribution to American historiography. His â€Å"detective story† is about a forgotten event, which is commonly overlooked when studying American history. It is undeniable that if the Denmark Vesey revolt had taken place, American history would have been changed forever, with ideas about slavery being changed, and the complete destruction of Charleston, South Carolina. David Robertson adequately relayed the event in a way that portrayed Denmark Vesey to be a hero, and a source of pride for African-Americans.

John Adams by David McCullough Essays -- Biography John Adams McCullou

John Adams, by David McCullough   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book, John Adams, by David McCullough, is a powerfully written biography of one of our nation’s greatest heroes. This biography explores Adams’ life in great depth, unveiling a side to his life unbeknownst to those who have never studied his life in great detail. Through diary entries, letters, and various other documents, the reader grasps a sense of what Adams’ day to day life was like, and is also able to grasp the enormity of his lifetime accomplishments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the battle for independence from Great Britain, the founding forefathers of our country came together, uniting for a common cause they would end up fighting for with their lives. Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Samuel Adams, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and many others take part of this panoramic chronicle of Adams’ life, all coming together because of their devotion to their country.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In particular, of these men, Thomas Jefferson especially is exposed, and his relationship with Adams is explored, as it is a crucial fluctuating one. Though born opposites, they forge a relationship as diplomats, and as close friends, only after meeting and working together, however. In a letter to James Madison, before Jefferson first went to France to work with Adams, he likens him to a poisonous weed. After becoming great friends in Paris, however he writes back to Madison, â€Å"He is so amiable that I pronounce you will love him if ever you become acquainted with him†. Later on though, as the advent of political parties comes into being, and during the intense struggle for the presidency of the election of 1800, the two become archrivals. Incredibly, after this, they become close friends once again, and amazingly die on the same day.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The other relationship described in great detail was that which he shared with his wife, Abigail Adams. Through all the times he spent away from her, working arduously for the freedom he was so determined to secure for the thirteen colonies, they stayed strongly attached, and wrote numerous letters to one another, many of which are shared. He writes to her while in Congress, one time sharing with her, â€Å"We live, my dear soul, in an age of trial. What will be the consequence, I know not.† She encourages him, giving him her approval and support, in one letter writing, â€Å"You cannot be, I know, ... ... to the realness of this man. This book was first published in 2001, in New York. Though probably released before the September 11 attacks, it is assurable that if it had been released after, the direct correlation of the American hero would be made of John Adams. I think that the author’s goal, in writing this book, is to present the reality of this particular co-revolutionary, which through all the primary documents especially, he was very successful in doing. The single most memorable thing that I learned about were the relationships that Adams had, with other familiar names. This book had really helped me to understand the happenings that went on in the life period of Adams, but also really just how all these historical co-revolutionaries and Founding Fathers were all related.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On a whole, I found that the scholarly reviews of this book were very positive. Most of the responses of other scholars were those of praise and commendation on such a great book, an interesting and valid view on the life of John Adams. Works Cited: Gelles, Edith. â€Å"The Adams Phenomenon.† November 2001. http:// www2.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=284001005599191.(05 January 2002)

TBL approach

Three stages could be involved in this cycle of continuous improvement, which tend to build on each others over time. These are Compliance: Many enterprises will decide to adopt the TUB approach in order to simply comply with the buyers' expectations or local regulations, with aim of retaining their â€Å"license to operate† in the face of buyers' demands or government inspections.Efficiency: With time or sometimes in parallel with the pressures to comply enterprises will come under pressure to improve performance and they will use this pressure, handled through a TUB approach, as a driver for cost savings, productivity improvements and quality enhancements focusing on process efficiency and resource utilization. This option offers a mix of cost saving and productivity improvements.Differentiation: Later on the enterprises involved for sometime In the TUB process thought of using the TUB approach strategically, aiming at strengthening their competitive position by moving them from being â€Å"price takers† to being â€Å"price setters† Criteria for selection of industries: The enterprises are Seems (Small and Medium scale Enterprises) Significant direct or indirect exporter The existence of at least some management capacity and the availability of an information system Significant level of Interests shown by person within the enterprise with a track record of leadership or Innovation and the authority(CEO/ Chairman/Plant manager) to sustain an Initiative such as TUB In the face of competing pressures A clear potential for Improvement Likelihood of effect arising from changes at the selected enterprise Basic stages of any sustained TUB process: The basic stages of any sustained TUB process Includes Enrolment:Being prepared for to â€Å"sign up† for the program In the beginning Application: Being prepared to commit company's resources especially staff time to Investigating company's performance Implementation: Being prepared to Invest resources In Implementing options arising from the TUB process Maintenance: Being prepared to sustain over the long term, the Minimal gains made as a result of Implementing Improved options CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT By businesswoman Later on the enterprises involved for sometime in the TUB process thought of information system Significant level of interests shown by person within the enterprise with a track record of leadership or innovation and the authority(CEO/ Chairman/Plant manager) to sustain an initiative such as TUB in the face of competing pressures A clear potential for improvement The basic stages of any sustained TUB process includes Enrolment: Being prepared for to â€Å"sign up† for the program in the beginning Application: investigating company's performance Implementation: Being prepared to invest resources in implementing options arising from the TUB Being prepared to sustain over the long term, the initial gains made as a result of implementing improved options

Rethinking Anthropology – E. R. Leach

RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY capital of the United Kingdom SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS MONOGRAPHS ON SOCLL ANTHROPOLOGY Managing Editor Anthony Fore The Monographs in on mixer Anthropology were established modem The by 1940 and charter to unloosen results of anthropological rese trendh of primary winding fire to specificists. continuation of the series was fasten on a leak viable from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, and to a greater extent recently by a further give in from the Governors of the London a grant in aid run short of economics and Political Science. re chthonian the path of an Board associated with the Department of Anthropology of the London indoctrinate of Economics and Political Science. Editorial The Monographs LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS MONOGRAPHS ON complaisant ANTHROPOLOGY No. 22 Re opinion Anthropology by E. R. divest UNIVERSITY OF LONDON THE ATHLONE complot NEW YORK humanistic discipline PRESS INC Published by THE ATHLONE PRESS UN IVERSITY OF LONDON at 2 Gotcer Street, Distri only whened by Tiptree London wci Book Services Ltd Tiptree, Essex front-year mutant, 1961 First paperback edition with corrections, 1966 Reprinted, 1968, 1971 E. R. Leach, 1961, 1971 U. K. U. K. sB N o 485 19522 4 cloth sB N B o 485 19622 o paperback U. S. A. s N 391 00146 9 paperback First printed in 1961 by ROBERT CUNNINGHAM AND SONS LTD ALVA Reprinted by photo-litho by bum DICKENS & CO LTD NORTHAMPTON 4- M75 Pre scene The backup of this collection right be recollectives only to the initiative es assure. On 3 December 1959 1 had the honour to deliver the low Malinovvski muniment Lecture at the London in lock of Economics. The Editorial Board of the London School of Economics Monographs in favorable Anthropology enerously offered to publish the text of my lecture further added the praise suggestion that I should reprinting a enumerate of my some otherwise essays at the equivalent clock time. I perk up accordly e nchantd the prenomen of my Malinowski lecture for the livelong collection. I do non pretend wholly unvarying with that The essays extend over a spot of fifteen years and is that the discipline headland of the up-to-the-minute (Chapter i) of the earliest (Chapter 2) further t here is, I bring forward, a plastered continuity of conclave and method in whatso forever of them. When they were premiere written solely these essays were attempts to re ideate anthropology.All atomic itemize 18 takeed with puzzles of others, I possible action and atomic number 18 ground on ethnographic particulars recorded by my testify contri scarcelyion being to begin with that of analyst. In each plate ease up tried to reassess the kn proclaim facts in the light of unorthodox assumpSuch heresy counts to me to give up meritoriousness for its hold sake. Unconventional occupations a lot free off to be do by al cardinal provided they provoke discussion they whitethorn sta tic pass water stretch forthing value. By that criterion each of the essays in this earmark is a possible faecesdidate for attention. tions. Among companionable anthropologists the is game f building refreshing theories on the ruins of old champion and only(a)nesss al around an occupational disease. Contemporary melodic lines in tender anthropology be built kayoed of chance variableulae concocted by Malinowski, Radcliffe- chocolate-br avouch and Levi-Strauss who in relinquish were only rethinking Rivers, Durkheim and Mauss, who borrowed from Morgan, McLennan and Robertson- Smith the exonerate gumption outcome of each(prenominal) and so on. Sceptics whitethorn think that despite all this stopping menstruation adds up to in truth pocketable our pedagogic subtleties, the diversities of human custom remain as bewildering as al counsels. plainly that we admit.The contemporary societal anthropologist is all too rise up apprised that he pick outs much(prenomi nal) less than Frazer imagined that he k crude for certain. b argonly that perhaps is the point. The contri aloneions to anthropological pedan canvas land in in this news add little to the sum of human fill in directge tho if they provoke some lecturers to doubt their sense of certainty thence they provideing eat served their mean. A none on the interconnections amid the different document draft of Chapter 2 may prove still easeful. The first was written in 1943 while I was on VI PREFACE and still in direct contact with Jinghpaw speakers. ppeargond in the 1945 volume of the J. R. A. I, this was non actually print until 1950. These details of dating be pertinent because they explain wherefore my paper claims no inter trance to Chapters 15 and i6 of Levi-Strauss, Les twists brokeraires de la pargonnte (1949) and mutually why the latter work ignores the new in seduceation provided by my paper. Chapter 3, which was headmasterly a Curl Prize Essay, was complete d in the spring of 195 1 and seems to drive home been the first English language commentar) on Levi-Strausss magnum part though, presumably, my paper and J.P. B. de Josselin de Jongs monograph Levi-Strausss Theory on phylofamilial analogy and nuptials (1952) were going through with(predicate) the constringe at the equal time. Although I here criticized Levi-Strauss on the grounds of ethnographical inaccuracy my discernment with his familiar theoretical point of place is very great. Professor Levi-Strauss has himself noned the law of resemblance amid the muckle of cordial social structure unquestioning in my first Jinghpaw paper (Chapter 2) and his own (Levi-Strauss, 1953, p. 525 n), and in all my subsequent numbers my debt to Levi-Strauss is perspicuous.The descriptor of Chapter 4 to earliest literature exit be appargonnt from the fibers in the text. Although it was not hatch to be controversial it get under ones skin Dr Kathleen Gough into a vigorous rep ly (Gough, 1959). The authoritative part of my parametric quantity here is that I emphasize the select to distinguish betwixt affinity regarded as an alliance betwixt corporate kin groups and those someone affine ties which bind a particular proposition married woman to a particular married man. This theme recurs in Chapter 5 and again in spry military service t Although Chapter i. Chapter 5, as indicated in the text, is linked with a long correspondence which appe ared in the pages of Man in 1953 and 1954 notwithstanding the response which it evoked from my oddment pedantic colleagues is only marginally committed with this earlier discussion. Dr treat has denounced my whole argument as grounded in fundamental geological fault (Goody, 1959, p. 86) and Professor Fortes has taken up most of dickens issues of Man to expound my fallacies and confusions (Fortes, 1959b).Both these explosions of academic wrath were provoked by a single sentence in my essay, to wit Thus Fort es, while recognizing that ties of affinity defend comparable importance to ties of stock certificate, disguises the actor under(a) his expression completing filiation (see below p. 122). The exact sense in which this direction is an error is still not clear to me for in the course of his denunciation Fortes reaffirms his view that complementary filiation is a function of related traffic (Fortes, 1959b, p. 209) which is hardly the argument I desire to controvert. Professor Fortes has cal take his article *a replication to Leach, and readers of Chapter i of this book need to evaluate that a among other things in it is intended as rejoinder to Fortes. Reference to a short note Man (i960. Art. 6) give perhaps help to make this clear. The devil short papers on time symbolism reprinted in Chapter 6 do PREFACE influence of Professor Levi-Strauss Vll not skeletal clay a series with the other chapters of the book though again the is pronounced. Although my Cronus and Chro nos appeared in print in 1953 while Levi-Strausss The morphological Study of Myth was only publish in 1956, I had in fact already heard Professor Levi-Strausss lecture on this topic before I wrote my essay.Explorations, the Toronto University publication in which my Chapter 6 was originally published, carried on its fly leaf the relation that it was designed, not as a permanent name journal that embalms virtue for posterity, except as a publication that explores and searches and questions and two my papers are correspondingly brief and tentative. more thanover a number of my friends take a leak suggested that the arguments they contain are of more than ephemeral interest hence the reissue here Chapter i contains a overturnable amount of consider which was not included in the utter text of my Malinowski lecture. The other essays appear as originally printed, except for the correction of misprints, and one or twain very peasant alterations intended to clarify the argume nt. The Introductory Notes at the correct astir(predicate) of Chapters 2-6 are new. Acknow takegements I am indebted to the Council of the Royal Anthropological bring in of Great Britain and Ireland for permission to reprint the essays published here as Chapters 2, 3, 4 and 5 and to Professor E. S. Carpenter and the University of Toronto for permission to reprint the two short essays included in Chapter 6.I am indebted to a ain grant in aid from the behavioral Sciences Division of the Ford Foundation for facilities active while preparing * j - these papers for publication. E. R. L. Contents 1. RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY I 2. JINGHPAW KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY THE STRUCTURAL IMPLICATIONS OF MATRILATERAL CROSS-COUSIN join 28 3. 54 4. POLYANDRY, INHERITANCE AND THE commentary OF hymeneals with PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO Sinhala CUSTOMARY LAW ASPECTS OF BRIDEWEALTH AND MARRIAGE stableness IO5 5. AMONG THE KACHIN AND LAKHER 6. II4 TWOESSAYS CONCERNING THE SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION OF TIME (i) 124 Cronus and Chronos, 124 (ii) cartridge clip and False Noses, 132 Rethinking Anthropology my arrogant title. Since 1930 British Anthropology has embody a healthy defined get along of estimations and - purposes which pull ahead directly from the teaching of Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown this iodine of aim is summed up in the statement that British social anthropology is functionalist and concerned with the relative depth psychology of social structures. notwithstanding during the last year or so it has begun to representative as if this particular aim had worked itself out.Most of my colleagues are giving up the attempt to make comparative generalizations instead they get under ones skin begun to release impeccably detailed historical ethno- tET Social me begin by explaining graphies of particular wads. I regret this new tendency for I still believe that the findings of anthro- pologists squander general as well as particular implications, but functionalist d octrine retire fromd to carry trust? why has the conceive what is bumping in social anthropology I believe we need to go right back to the beginning and rethink basal issues really simple progenys such(prenominal) as To hat we mean by marriage or channel or the unity of difficult siblings, and that is for basic ideas are basic The the ideas one has about them are deeply entrenched and firm held. One prepossess of the things we need to grapple is the strength of the empirical which Malinowski introduced into social anthropology and which substantial core of social anthropology has stayed with us ever since. is understanding of the way of life of a single particular people. This fieldwork is an extremely person-to-personised traumatic pleasing of experience and the personal involvement of the anthropologist in his work is reflected in what he produces.When we read Malinowski we get the judgement that he is stating something which is of general importance. however h ow deal this be? He is exactly piece of music about Trobriand Islanders. Somehow he has so assimilated himself into the Trobriand situation that he is able to make the Trobriands fieldwork a microcosm of the whole primitive world. successors for Firth, naif citizen of the And the comparable is true of his is Man is a Tikopian, for Fortes, he a Ghana. The existence of this damage has long been recognized / but we keep paid inadequate attention to its consequences.The hindrance of achieving comparative generalizations is directly linked with the riddle of escaping from ethnocentric bias. 2 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY As is charm to an occasion I when we honour the retention of Bronislaw MaUnowski, am going to be thoroughly egotistical. I shall imply on that point my own is merit by condemning the work of in my nearst friends. only if purpose is to distinguish between two kinda similar varieties of comparative generalization, some(prenominal) of which turn up from time to time in contemporary British social anthropology.One of these, which I dislike, derives from the work of Radcliffe-Brown the other, which I admire, derives from the work of Levi-Strauss. It is definitive that the differences between these two advancees be properly understood, so I shall draw my illustrations in sharp contrast, all black and all white. In this harsh and overstated assortment Professor Levi-Strauss method my malice. My exponent well repudiate the authorship of the ideas which I am trying to convey. Hence my egotism let the blame be wholly mine. My problem is simple.How burn down a modern social anthropologist, with all the work of Malinowski and Radcliffc-Brown and their successors at his elbow, adventure upon generalization with any hope of arriving at a satisfying conclusion? My termination is quite simple too it is this By thinking of the cheekal ideas that are enclose in any party as constituting a numerical signifier. The rest of what I have to say that is simply an culture of this cryptic statement. concern is with generalization, not with keep that the objective of social anthropology was the comparison of social structures.In explaining this he asserted that when we distinguish and equalize different guinea pigs of social structure we are doing the same variant of thing as when we distinguish different kinds of sea fount according to their geomorphologic role (RadcliffeBrown, 1953, p. 109). abstraction is quite a different kind of mental First let me emphasize my comparison. Radcliffe-Brown operation. Let me illustrate this point. two points depose be joined by a successive line and you lav bet this straight line mathematically by a smG. first ball club algebraic equation. whatever three points gouge be joined by a turn and you can represent this pass around by a quadratic or present moment effect algebraic equation. It would be a generalization to go straight on from in that location and say any Any n points in a sail can be joined by a curve which can be represented by an equation of order n-i. This would be just a guess, but it would be true, and it is a kind of truth which no amount of comparison can ever reveal. likeness and generalization are twain forms of scientific activity, but different. Comparison is a matter of bray ingathering of circleification, of the rrangement of things according to their types and subtypes. The followers of Radcliffe-Brown are anthropological butterfly collectors and their barbel to their data has certain consequences. For role model, according to RadclifTe- Browns rationales we ought to think of Trobriand club RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY as 3 classification a society of a particular structural type. The might proceed thus Main cause Sub-type Sub-sub-type societies societies societies composed of uni matrilineal descent groups. composed of matrilinear descent groups. composed of matrilineal descent groups in which he married males of t he matrilineage live together in one state of affairs and apart from the females of the matrilineage, and so on. In this surgery each class antecede it is a sub-type of the class immediately in the tabulation. its uses, but it has very sedate has no logical limits. Ultimately discriminated in this way as a sub-type immediately I any just agree that depth psychology of this kind has is limitations. One major(ip) abandon known society can be that it from any other, and since anthropologists are notably fainthearted about what they mean by a society, this will lead them to distinguish more and more ocieties, almost ad infinitum. This is not just hypothesis. My colleague Dr Goody has bypast to great pains to distinguish as types two adjacent societies in the Union Gold Coast which he calls LoWiili and LoDagaba. A careful reader of Dr Goodys works will discover, however, that these two societies are distinct simply the way that field Dr Goody notes from two has chosen to descri be the fact that his neighbouring communities depute some curious discrepancies. If limit Dr Goodys methods of analysis were pushed to the we should be able to show that every village community throughout is he world constitutes a distinct society which distinguishable as a type from any other (Goody, 1956b). Another serious objection is that the typology makers never explain why they choose one frame of reference quite an than other. RadcliffeBrovsTis instructions were simply that it is needed to compare societies the economic system, the with reference to one particular aspect . . . political system, or the kinship system . . . this is equivalent to saying that you can arrange your butterflies according to their colour, or their size, or the shape of their wings according to the him of the moment, but no matter what you do this will be science. Well perhaps, in a sense, it is but you must realize that your preliminary arrangement pass waters an initial bias from which it is after extremely difficult to escape (Radcliffe-Brown, 1940, p. xii). Social anthropology is packed with frustrations of it this kind. An patent Ever since moral is the stratum opposition lineal/matrilineal. has been oecumenic for anthropologists to distinguish unilineal from non-unilineal descent systems, and writing of the Iroquois, Morgan began among that it the former to distinguish patrilineal societies from atrilineal societies. is These categories now seem to us so rudimentary and obvious extremely difficult to break out of the straitjacket of thought which the categories themselves impose. 4 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY Yet if our approach is to be genuinely unsophisticated we must be prepared to consider the possibihty that these type categories have no sociological significance whatsoever. It may be that to create a class labelled matrtis as irrelevant for our understanding of social structure as the creation of a class blue butterflies is irrelevant for the understanding of the anatomical reference structure of lepidoptera.I dont say it is so, but it may be it is lineal societies time that we considered the possibility. J I warn you, the rethinking of basic category assumptions can be very disconcerting. But Let me cite a case. Dr Audrey Richardss well-known(a) contribution to African Systems of Kinship and Marriage is an essay in Radcliffe-Brownian typology making which is right regarded as one of the musts of undergraduate interpreting (Richards, 1950). In this essay Dr Richards asserts that societies is the problem of matrilineal the twoer of combining recognition of descent through the oman with the rule of exogamous marriage, and she classifies a multifariousness of matrilineal societies according to the way this problem is solved. In effect her classification turns on the fact that a womans husband the two men. together with possess rights in the womans brother and a womans chelaren but that matrilineal systems differ in the way these rights are allocated between is the forward category assumptions. Men have kinds of society, so why should it be assumed from the swallow that brothers-in-law in matrilineal societies have picky prob- What I object to in this ll brothers-in-law in lems which are absent in patrilineal or bilateral structures? really What has lay a matrilineal society, she has decided to cut down her comparative obser-ations to matrilineal systems. Then, having selected a group of societies which have nothing in prevalent except that they are matrilineal, she is by temper led to conclude that matrilineal descent is the major factor to which all the other items of pagan behaviour which she happened here with the Bemba, is that, because Dr Richardss own superfluous knowledge describes are functionally adjusted.Her argument I am afraid is a tautology her system of classification already implies the truth of what she claims to be demonstrating. This illustrates how Radcliffe-Browns taxonomic assu mptions fit in with the ethnocentric bias which I mentioned earlier. Because the typefinding social anthropologist conducts his whole argument in terms of tempted particular instances earlier than of reason out patterns, he is constantly to attach exaggerated significance to those features of social organization which happen to be prominent in the societies of which he himself has first hand experience. The ase of Professor Fortes illustrates this is same point in rather a different way. His quest not so much for types as for ensamples. It so happens that the two societies of which he has made a close study have certain similarities of structural pattern for, while the Tallensi are patri- RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY lineal 5 and the Ashanti matrilineal, both Tallensi and Ashanti come unfiliation, usually close to having a system of ternary unilineal descent. Professor Fortes has devised a special supposition, complementary which helps him to describe this two-base hit unilineal el ement in the Tallensi/Ashanti pattern while rejecting the arbitrariness that these societies actually possess double unilineal systems (Fortes, 1953, p. 33 1959b). It is interesting to note the quite a little which led to the schooling of this concept. From one point of view complementary filiation is simply an inverse form of Malinowskis notion of sociological paternity as utilise in the matrilineal context of Trobriand society. But Fortes has done more than invent a new name for an old idea he has made it the corner rock-and-roll of a substantial body of scheme and this theory arises logically special circumstances of his own field experience.In his earlier literature the Tallensi are often represented as having a somewhat extreme form of patrilineal ideology. Later, in contrast to from the Rattray, Fortes position an unambiguously matrilineal label upon the Ashanti. view, is The that merit of complementary it is filiation, from Fortess point of a concept which applies equa lly well to both of these contrasted societies but does not date with his thesis that both the Tallensi and the Ashanti have systems of unilineal descent. The concept ecame necessary to him precisely because he had decided at the snuff it that the more familiar and more obvious notion of double unilineal descent was inappropriate. In retrospect Fortes seems to have decided that double unilineal descent is a special development of complementary filiation, the latter being a feature of all unilineal descent structures. That such category distinctions are contrived rather than natural is evident from Goodys additional discrimination. Goody asserts that the LoWiili have complementary descent rather than a dual descent system.Since the concept of complementary filiation was first introduced so as to help in the distinction between filiation and descent and since the adjective complementary cannot here be given up meaning except by reference to the word descent, the total argument is distinctly tautologous (Fortes, 1945, pp. 134, 20of 1950, p. 287 1953, p. 34 1959 Goody, 1956b, p. 77). Now I do not claim that Professor Fortes is mistaken, but I think he is misled by his prior suppositions. If making and from enthnocentric science. we are to bias we must let escape both from typology turn to a different kind ofInstead of comparison repeat. Generalization us have generalization instead of inductive it butterfly amass let us have inspired guesswork. Let me is consists in perceiving it is possible general laws in the circumstances of special cases guesswork, a gamble, you may be vilify or you may be right, but if you happen to be right you have readt something altogether new. In contrast, arranging butterflies according to their types and sub-types is tautology. It merely reasserts something you know already in a slightly different form. 6 RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY But if you are going is o buzz off guessing, you need I to know how to guess. . d this wliat I am ac quiring at when say that the form of thinking should be mathematical. Functional ism in a mathematical sense is not concerned with the interconnections between part of a whole but with the principles of operation of partial derivative systems. There is a direct conflict here with the precepts of Malinowski and Malinowskis functionalism required us to think of each Society (or Culture, as Malinowski would have put it) as a sum Radcliffe-Brown. of a made up kinds number of discrete empirical things, of rather divers(a) institutions, e. g. groups of people, customs. These things are functionally interconnected to form a delicately balanced chemical tool rather like the various parts of a radiocarpal joint watch. cliffe- The functionalism of Rad- Brown was equally automatic though the commission of interest was different. RadclifTe-Brown was concerned, as it were, to distinguish wrist watches clocks, whereas Malinowski was interested in the general attributes of clockwork. But hath masters took as their startle point the notion that a culture or a society is an empirical whole made up rom grand drive of a limited two societies number of readily identifiable parts and that when we compare we are concerned to see whether or not the same kinds of is parts are present in both cases. This approach a mechanic but appropriate for a zoologist or for a botanist or for it is not the approach of a mathematician nor of an engineer and, in gineer. my view, the anthropologist has much in common with the en- But that is my esoteric bias. I was originally trained as an engineer. The entities which we call societies are not naturally existing species, n both re they artificial mechanisms. But the likeness of a mechanism has quite as much relevance as the affinity of an being. This is not the place to discuss the history of the organic analogy as a model for Society, but its arbitrariness is often forgotten. Hobbes, who developed his notion of a social organism i n a very systematic way, discusses in his preface whether a mechanical or an organic analogy might be the more appropriate for his purpose. He opts for an organism only because he wants to include in his model a metaphysical prize mover (i. . God bearing Force) (Hobbes, 1957, p. 5). In contrast RadcHffe-Brown employed the organic analogy as a matter of dogma rather than of choice (e. g. Radcliffe-Brown, 1957, pp. 82-86 1940a, pp. 3, lo) and his butterfly collecting followers have accepted the rightness of the phrase social organism without serious discussion. Against this complacency I must protest. It is certainly the case that social scientists must often furbish up all to analogy but eternity. we are not committed to one type of model making for Our task societies s to understand and explain what goes on in society, how work. If an engineer tries to explain to you how a digital computer RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY bolts. 7 works he doesnt spend his time classifying different ki nds of nuts and He concerns himself with principles, not with things. He writes out argument as a mathematical equation of the utmost simplicity, somewhat on the lines of o + i = i i + i = 10. No doubt this example is frivolous such computers embody their selective information in a code which is inherited in positive and negative impulses denoted by the digital symbols o and i.The essential point is that although the information which can be bodily in such codes may be enormously complex, the basic principles on which the compute machines work is very simple. Likewise I would harbor that quite simple mechanical models can have relevance for social anthropology despite the acknowledged fact that the detailed empirical facts of social life present the utmost complexity. I dont want to turn anthropology into a starting time of mathematics but I believe we can learn a lot by starting to think about society in a mathehis matical way.Considered mathematically society is not an a ssemblage of things but an assemblage of variables. A good analogy would be with that branch of mathematics known as analysis situs, which may crudely be described as the geometry of elastic rubber cruiseing. If I have a piece of rubber sheet and draw a series of lines on it to symbolize the functional interconnections of some set of social phenomena and I then start stretching the rubber about, I can change the manifest shape of my original geometrical figure out of all recognition and yet clearly thither is a sense in which it is the same figure all the time.The constancy of pattern is not manifest as an objective empirical fact but it is there as a mathematical generalization. By analogy, generalized structural patterns in anthropology are not restricted to societies of any one manifest structural type. you will show me that topology is one of those which mere sociologists had vanquish avoid, but I am not in fact proposing anything original. A very good simple account of the nature of topology appears in an article under that title in the current edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.The author himself makes the point that because topology is a non-metrical form of mathematics it deserves exceptional attention from social scientists. I Now know that a lot of august scientific mysteries The fundamental Any shut curve is arc of a circle is the variable in topology the is the ground level of connectedness. same as any other disregardless of its shape the same as a straight line because each is open ended. Contrariwise, a closed curve has a greater degree of connectedness than an arc. If of pattern case if we apply these ideas to sociology particular relationships e cease to be interested in and concern ourselves instead with the regularities relationships. is among neighbouring In the simplest possible there be a relationship p which intimately associated with another relationship q then in a topological study we shall not concern ourselves 8 RETHINKI NG ANTHROPOLOGY with the particular characteristics of/) and q but with their mutual characteristics, i. e. with the algebraic ratio pq. But it must be understood that the relationships and sets of relationships which are symbolized in this way cannot properly be given specific numerical values.The reader should bear this point in sound judgment when he encounters the specimens of pseudo-mathematics which occur later in this paper. All propositions in topology can in any case be expressed as propositions in symbolic logic (see Carnap, 1958, chapter G) and it was probably a consideration of this fact which led Nadel to introduce symbolic logic into own view is that while the consideration book (Xadel, 1957). of mathematical and logical models may help the anthropologist to order his last My his theoretical arguments in an all this intelligent way, his actual procedure s should be non-mathematical. The pattern relevance of to my main theme that the saTne structural may turn up in a ny kind of society patrilineal a mathematical approach matrilineal makes no prior assumption that from non-unilineal systems or structures. all unilincal systems are basically different structures from the contrary, the principle of parity leads us to discount strong category distinctions of this kind. On Let me try to illustrate I for the occasion shall take my point with an example. To be my example from Malinowski. Malinowski reported, as a ppropriate Most of you will know that fact of empirical ethnography, that the Trobrianders profess ignorance of the connection between copulation and pregnancy and that this ignorance serves as a rational justification for their system of matrilineal descent. From the Trobriand point of view my stupefy (tama) is not a blood relative at all but a kind of affine, *my mothers husband (Malinowski, 1932a, p. 5). However, alongside their dogmatic ignorance of the facts of life, Trobrianders also maintain that every tiddler should resemble its mot hers husband (i. . its start) but that no churl could ever resemble a member of its own matrilineal kin. Malinowski seems to have thought it incorrect that Trobrianders should hold both these doctrines at the same time. He was apparently bemused by the same kind of ethnocentric assumptions as later led a Tallensi informant to tell Professor Fortes that both parents diffuse their blood to their offspring, as can be seen from the fact that Tallensi children may resemble either parent in looks (Fortes, 1949, p. 35 my italics). This is premix up sociology and genetics.We know, and apparently the Tallensi assume, that physical fashion is genetically based, but there is no reason why primitive people in general should associate ideas of genetic inheritance with ideas about physical likeness between persons. The explanation which the Trobrianders gave to Malinowski was that a initiate impresses his appearance on his son by cohabiting repeatedly with the mother and thereby moulding (kuli) the child in her womb (Malinowski, 1932a, p. 176) which is reminiscent of the Ashanti . RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY view that the start out shapes the body of his child as might a potter (Rattray, 1929, p. 9). This Trobriand theory is quite consistent with the view that the father is related to the son only as mothers husband that is, an affine and not as a kinsman. There are other Trobriand doctrines which fall into line with this. The fathers sister is the prototype of the lawful woman (Malinowski, 1932a, p. 450) which seems to be more or less the equivalent of saying that the father (tama) is much the same sort of relation as a brother-in-law.Again, although, as Powell has shown (Powell, 1956, p. 314), marriage with the fathers sisters daughter is rare, the Trobrianders constantly assured Malinowski that this was a very right and proper marriage. simply in their view the category tama (which includes both father and fathers sisters son) is very close to that of lubou (brot her-in-law) (Mal- inowski, 1932a, pp. 86, 451). The similarity is asserted not only in verbal expression but also in the pattern of economic obligation, for the ingathering gift (urignbu) paid by a married man is due both to his mothers husband tama) and to his sisters husband (lubou) (Malinowski, 1935, I, pp. 386, 413-18). From my point of view this cluster of Trobriand beliefs and attitudes is a pattern of organizational ideas it specifies a series of categories, in a particular relationship and places them with one another as in an was biased by his down to earth empiricism, by European prejudices and by his interest in psycho-analysis, and he refused to accept tlie Trobriand doctrine at its face value. Instead he refurbished his concept of sociological paternity which he had originalgebraic equation.But Malinowski ally devised to fit a quite different context, that of patrilineal organization among On to the Australian Aborigines (Malinowski, 19 13, p. 170-83). this earlier occ asion Malinowski had used sociological paternity relations show how between parents and children and between spouses derive from customary rules and not from any universal facts of biology or psychology, but in the later application of these ideas to Trobriand circumstances he shifts his ground and the argument becomes confused by the introduction of naive psychological considerations. On the face of t sociological paternity, as used in The Sexual Life of attitudes Savages, seems to mean that even in a society which, like the Trobriands, sociological still denies the facts of biological paternity, pertain to paternity, as zve understand it, which far, may be found. So so good. But Malinowski goes further than this. Instead of arguing, as in the Australian case, that kinship attitudes have a purely social origin, he now insists that social attitudes to kinship arc facts. rooted in universal psychological The paternal relationship contains elements which are necessarily resent in the father/child relationship of all societies, no matter what the circumstances of custom and social structure confusing. may be. This is all very On the one hand the reader is is told quite plainly that the Trobriand child taught to think of his father as a non-relative, as an lO RETHINKING ANTHROPOLOGY individual with the special non-kinship status of mothers husband. But on the other hand the reader is oblige to conclude that this IVobriand mothers husband is related to the mothers child as a sociological father, that is to say by ties of kinship as well as by tics of affinity.The argument, as a whole, is self-contradictory. is You may about. well think that this a yery hairsplitting point to make a fuss How can it possibly make any difference whether I think of a parti- cular male as my father or as is my mothers husband? Well, all I can say that anthropologists do Professor Fortes, Dr Goody and Dr Kathleen Gough on this field of battle that worry about such things. are so distu rbed by my dissident yiews oflF time to try to bruise my owskis argument (Fortes, 1959)-